The Roman Alphabet | 7th century BC

What was the basis of the Roman uppercase alphabet?
It was the Greek alphabet.

What were the purposes of the formal and informal styles of lettering?
The rigid, formal style was used for important manuscripts and official documents, while a quicker, informal style was used for letters and routine types of writing.


Why is the Roman alphabet the most widely used and what contributions did it make?
They refined several distinct styles of lettering which were used for different purposes. Serifs originated with the carving of words into stone, institution of the baseline in typography and penmanship, and they ensured that type was perfectly aligned in rows


From where did serifs originate?
They originated with the carving of words into stone so that the chisel wouldn't slip.


When and where did lowercase, or minuscule, letters develop?
They developed in the Middle Ages from New Roman Cursive writing.


What is a ligature and why were they utilized?
Ligatures are when two or more letters are joined into one character. They were utilized because it increased writing speed and the scribal abbreviations were used to avoid having to write a whole character at a stroke.




Post an example of the Roman alphabet in visual form.

The Greek Alphabet | 800 BC

How did Greeks come in contact with the Phoenicians?
Phoenicians regularly traveled to Greece and established trade agreements with them.


How was the Greek adaptation of the alphabet different from its predecessor?
Some of the Phoenician consonants were adapted as vowels and additional letters were included.


Why is the Greek alphabet considered to be the world's first true alphabet?
It has given rise to many other alphabets including the Latin alphabet.


Name several similarities and differences between the Greek and modern English alphabets?
Both include vowels and consonants and some letters are the same. They have different sounds.


Post an example of the Greek alphabet in visual form. 
 

The Phoenician Alphabet | 1050 BC

The Phoenician alphabet is based on what principle?
One sign represents one spoken sound

Describe the shape of the letters and what tool created them?
-The shapes were angular and straight and created by a stylus.

What two reasons made the Phoenician alphabet so successful?-The system contrasted with other scripts at the time which used complex characters and were difficult to learn. Also, the trading culture of the Phoenician merchants spread the use of the alphabet into parts of North Africa and Europe.


What long term effects on the social structures of civilizations did the Phoenicians have with the creation of their alphabet?
-It was the first widespread script, the simplicity allowed it to be used in multiple languages, allowed people to learn how to read and write, and disintegrated class division between royalty and the common people.




Post an example of the Phoenician alphabet in visual form.

Hieroglyphics and the Egyptians | 3,000 BC

In the sixth century BC, what three civilizations invaded Egypt? 
-Persians, Greeks, and Romans


Post an example of the inside wall(s) of an Ancient Egyptian temple.

What was discovered on the inside of the temples?
-Carved and painted images on every wall and surface

Scholars believe that Ancient Egyptians were inspired and influenced by which written language?
-Cuneiform

What is the difference between logographic and alphabetic elements?
-A logograms are visual symbols representing ideas or objects. Alphabetic involved words and characters.


The term Hieroglyphic derived from what two Greek words?
-Hero means sacred and glyphic means engraving or writing

What is a scribe? 
-Someone who knows how to read and write. They were responsible for writing a set of scrolls for pharaohs and other important Egyptians on papyrus.

Who else was trained to read and write? Why?
-Students learned to read and write and military leaders were as well so they could communicate while in battle. Priests learned to read and write instructions on the which were performed to please the gods and goddesses.




Post an example of hieroglyphics on papyrus.

What is papyrus and how was it made?
Substrate made from reeds native to Egypt

What is a substrate?
The surface or material on or from which an organism lives, grows, or obtains its nourishment.

What were the Books of the Dead?

Instructions and spells to help them find their way to the afterlife that were usually commissioned by the see themselves before death

How did Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics become a forgotten language?

The hieroglyphics were used under Persian rule, but by the time the Greeks and Romans ruled Egypt, fewEgyptians were capable of reading or writing them.

Post an example of the Rosetta Stone.

What is the Rosetta Stone? Where was it discovered?
A slab of stone with the same inscriptions written on it in three different languages. It was discovered in Rosetta, in the Middle East.

What three languages are included on the stone?
Egyptian hieroglyphics, Demotic, and Greek


Why couldn't the text on the Stone be deciphered?
A chunk of the stone was missing and none of the three texts were complete.


Who finally deciphered the text? What was his breakthrough?
French scholar, Jean Francois Champollion. His breakthrough came when he was able to match up the hieroglyphic symbols with the Greek version of the name, Egyptian pharaoh Ramses

Why does the interpretation of the Rosetta Stone have such significance?
We now know a great deal about the ancient Egyptians and Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Early Computers | 1930s - 1980s AD

What is an abacus?
An oblong frame with rows of wires or grooves along which beads are slid and it's used for calculating.

In 1936,  Zuse invented this type of computer?
Freely programmable computer

Post a photo of the 1944 Mark Computer.


In 1944, Aiken and Hopper designed the Mark Series of computers to be used for what?
It was used by the US Navy for ballistic and gunnery

Post a photo of the UNIVAC Computer.
In 1951, Eckert and Mauchly designed the first commercial computer for whom? 
Census Bureau

What does UNIVAC stand for?
Universal automatic computer

In 1953, IBM enters the scene. What does IBM stand for?
International business machines

What is FORTRAN?
IBM mathematical formula translating system

Post a photo of the first mouse.

In 1964, how did Engelbart change the way computers worked?
Made them a more user-friendly tool

What is the significance of ARPnet?
It was the first Internet developed to protect the flow of information between military installations by creating a network of geographically separated computers.

In 1971, Intel introduced this? 
First single chip microprocessor: Intel 4004



Post a photo of it.

In the same year, IBM introduced this? Post a photo of one.
First "memory disk" often called the "floppy disk"

In 1973, Metcalf and Xerox created this?
First Ethernet computer network

During the next several years, the first consumer computers were marketed. 
Post photos of the Altair, Apple I, Apple II, TRS-80, Commodore PET. Label each.
Altair

Apple I

Apple II

TRS-80

Commodore PET

In 1981, Bill Gates and Microsoft introduced this package?
MS-DOS computer operating system which was packaged with the IBM PC

Post a photo of the Lisa computer.

In 1983, who introduced the Lisa computer?
Apple

What is GUI?
Graphical User Interface

Post a photo of the computer mentioned below.
In 1984, a more affordable home computer was introduced. Name the computer and the company that marketed it?
Apple Macintosh Computer from Apple

The commercial only ran one time. When?
In 1984

In response to the Apple GUI, Gates and Microsoft introduced this?
Windows operating system

Two men are known for their development of the Apple I computer. Who are they?
Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniack 

When was the internet that we know, world wide web, developed and introduced?
In 1991

Over the years, Apple has included "easter eggs" within their software. What is an "easter egg"? 
Secret hidden messages and icons within their software

Search for easter eggs in Photoshop and Illustrator. List a few in this post ... and try to find them in the applications.
In Photoshop, a Merlin images came as well as a space monkey, and some jokes. In Illustrator, fun facts and the number of days until Christmas.


Where do you think computers will take us in the next 10 years?
I think computers will help the world become more connected and technologically advance us by perhaps helping us store data more efficiently, finding research materials faster, and etc.

Photography | 1839 - 1960s AD

Until the 1880s, how were news stories illustrated?
In engravings or woodcuts

What is a camera obscura?
It's an optical device that projects an image of its surroundings onto a screen

Post an example of a camera obscura.

How did scholars and artists utilize the camera obscure?
Scholars use it for the safe observation of solar eclipses and the phases of the moon. Artists used it to trace the outside of scenes and paint or draw them.

From where did the photographic camera develop?
Camera obscura

Who first used the term "photography"? Where was is derived from?
Sir John Hershel; Greek words of "light" and "writing"


Post an the first photograph.  

Who is credited with making the first successful photograph?
Joseph Niepce

Post an example of a Daguerreotype image. 

Who invented the Daguerreotype process? What are the advantages and disadvantages of the process?
Louis Daguerre; advantages are that they could be made permanent by soaking them in salt. Disadvantages were that they could not be copied and were expensive

Post an example of a Calotype image. 

Who invented the Calotype process? What are the advantages and disadvantages of the process?
William Fox Talbot; advantages were that it produced negative images and unlimited amounts of duplicates could  be made. Disadvantages were that quality was inferior to the striking images produced by the Daguerrotype process.

Post an example of a Wet Collodion Process image.

Who invented the Wet Collodion process? What are the advantages and disadvantages of the process?
Frederick Scott Archer; advantages were that it reduced exposure to two or three seconds and the cost was significantly less than the other processes. Disadvantages were that plates had to be exposed and developed immediately when they were still wet.

Post an example of a Dry Plate Process image.

Who invented the Dry Plate process? What are the advantages and disadvantages of the process?
Richard Maddox; advantages were that it used gelatin instead of glass and the glass plates were coated in gelatin. Disadvantages were that photography at this point were still too complicated for the public.

Who is George Eastman? What company did he establish?
He invented roll film which is a photographic medium that replaced the fragile glass plates with a photo-emulsion coated on paper rolls. He established Kodak.


Post an example of The Kodak Camera from 1888.

In 1888, he produced a camera that use his flexible roll film. How did he make this camera/photography accessible to the public?
He introduced the Brownie in 1900 for one dollar.

What is Edwin Land best known for? What company did he establish?
He patented polarize light filters in 1934 and he had instant photography in 1948. He established Polaroid.

Post a photo of the first Polaroid camera.

How long did the first Polaroid camera take to produce a photo?
60 seconds (1 minute)

What was Eadweard Muybridge known for?
He was known for his work using multiple cameras to capture motion.

Post a photo of the Zoopraxiscope.

What is the Zoopraxiscope?
A device used to project a series of images in successive phases of motion

Post a photo of Muybridge's horse in motion.

How did Muybridge settle the debate and photograph a horse in motion?
He used a series of large cameras placed in a line that were each triggered by a thread as the horse passed by.

In 1880s, the development of the motion picture camera allowed this?
Individual images to be captured and stored on a single film reel

Post a photo of a motion picture projector

What is a motion picture projector?
It's a device to shine a light through the film and magnify a moving picture on a screen for an audience.

The Linotype Machine | 1886 AD

Who is credited with the invention of the typewriter? 
Christopher Sholes


What is a "stenographer"?
Someone who is skilled in the transcription of speech

Post an example of Shole's typewriter.

Why did Sholes send a prototype of his typewriter to Clephane?
He realized that stenographers would be the first and most important users

After the typewriter began production, why did Clephane pursue another machine?
It look a long time to typeset and copy words.

Who spent a year redesigning Clephane's typesetting machine?
Omar Mergenthaler


What is meant by "typesetting"?
To arrange or generate the type for a piece of text to be printed

Post an example of Linotype Machine.

How does the Linotype Machine differ from the typewriter?
It allows for type to be reset mechanically than by hand.

How did this machine change the newspaper industry?
It made it possible to set type for more pages on a daily basis.

Post an example of a Linotype keyboard.

How did the keyboard of the Linotype Machine differ from keyboards that we use today?
It had a 90 character keyboard, no shift key,  arrangement of keys was based on frequency, black key on the left were the lower case letters, white keys on the right were the upper case letters, and the blue keys in the center were for punctuation, numbers, small capital letters, and fixed width spaces.
Post an example of a Linotype slug.

What is a slug?
An assembled line of text attached as a single piecePost an example of a person operating a Linotype Machine.

Why is the Linotype Machine the greatest advanced in printing since movable type?
It allowed for faster typesetting and composition than by hand.

The Gutenberg Press | 1450 AD

What is Johannes Gutenberg credited with?
Inventing the technology of printing with moveable type.

Post a photo of the Gutenberg Press.


How did the printing press work? 
Hand press in which ink was rolled over the raised surface of movable hand-set black letter held within a wooden form.


What motivated Gutenberg to find a better way of creating books?
Spending time with his father at the mint, watching goldsmiths and jewelers. This and his love of reading motivated him.


Why did Gutenberg experiment with metal type versus wood type?
Woodcuts weren't durable, splint in the press after repeated use, block was discarded as soon as a slightly different impression was needed. Metal could be produced more quickly and just needed one.

Post an example of movable type in a type case.


What is moveable type?
System of printing that uses movable components to reproduce the elements of a document (usually individual letters and punctuation).

What is a matrix?
Mold in which something, such as printing type or a phonograph record, is cast or shaped.


What ink did Gutenberg develop that he used specifically for the printing press?
Oil-based ink that was oily, varnish-like and made of soot, turpentine, and walnut oil


What is paper made from? Where did paper originate?
A substrate made from wood pulp that originated in China.

What is a "substrate"?
A substance or layer that underlies something, or on which some process occurs, in particular.

Who did Gutenberg seek to help with the invention of the press? Close to the end of the 5 years, what happened? John Fust, a wealthy businessman, to invest. Fust sued Gutenberg who gave the press, tools, materials, and 180 Bibles to Fust.


What was the first book he printed?
A two-volume Bible

Post an example of this book.

How did the Gutenberg Press impact communication?
It perfected script and made it easier to read, books made more rapidly, current information could be shared locally and around the world, cost of books decreased allowing more people to buy them, demand grew and the population became more literate, people wanted books written in their own language and a greater variety of books, book trade began to flourish, as well as industries in paper making, economies became stronger, and art and science began to flourish which led to the beginning of the Renaissance.

Who introduced the printing press to England?
William Caxton

What was the early form of newspapers?
Trade newsletters

When was the first news weekly published? What was it called?
1704; The Boston Letter

What kind of press was built in the US in the mid 1800s?
A press completely made from cast iron

Post an example of a 1930s printing press.

By the late 1930s, presses had increased in efficiency and were capable of 2,500 to 3,500 impressions per hour. What is meant by "impression"?
Printing process when ink transfers onto paper

Which printing process is the Gutenberg press an example of? Briefly describe the process?
Relief printing which is the oldest method of printing. Movable type is placed into the press. Ink is spread onto the type. Paper is placed on top. The press applies the direct pressure needed to transfer the ink to the paper.

Post an example of an intaglio press.

What is intaglio printing and how is ink transferred? 
Image area is etched into the plate surface to hold the ink. Ink is applied, then rubbed with a cloth to remove the excess. Damp paper is placed on top. A press applies pressure to transfer the ink to the paper.
Post an example of a screen (porous) printing press.

What is porous printing and how is ink transferred?
Screen printing is an example . Accounts for a comparatively small volume of the printing industry. Heavy lay down of ink so strong colors can be obtained making it suitable for posters, signs, and shirts.
Post an example of a lithography printing press.

What is lithography and how is ink transferred?
Printing from a flat surface. Based on the concept that oil and water do not readily mix. Drawing, or artwork, is made on the plate with greasy ink or crayon. Water is applied. When ink is spread on top, the greasy parts accept the ink; the wet parts do not.
Post an example of a offset lithography printing press.

What variation of lithography is used by the commercial printing industry today?
Offset lithography

How do printing presses used today compare to the Gutenberg Press?
Nowadays, they are much faster and much more efficient.

Describe four-color process printing using CMYK?
CMYK stands for cyan, magenta, yellow, and kohl (black). A combination of these colors are utilized.